Simulations in Social Studies: Practical Implications
from Classroom to Extended Reality
David Hicks
Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia
J. Todd Ogle
Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia
Stephanie van Hover
University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia
Keywords Simulations; Digital Simulations; Hidden Histories; Hard
Histories, Instructional Design; Social Studies Education
How to cite this article (APA): Hicks, D., Ogle, J. T., & van Hover, S. (2025). Simulations in social studies:
Practical implications from classroom to extended reality. Annals of Social Studies Research for Teachers,
7(1), xx-xx. https://doi.org/10.29173/assert86
ABSTRACT
This paper examines the use of simulations in social studies education, from
traditional classroom methods to extended reality (XR) technologies. Our research
explores experiential learning in social studies, ranging from traditional classroom
simulations to extended reality (XR). Our research explores the affordances of using
both traditional and extended reality (XR) simulations to teach hidden and hard
history. Key findings highlight the importance of purposeful instructional design,
structured inquiry, and ethical considerations when implementing simulations,
particularly for sensitive historical subjects. The research reveals that well-designed
XR simulations can enhance student engagement and historical understanding by
making the past visible and accessible. However, educators must carefully balance
immersive experiences with critical analysis and avoid role-playing traumatic events.
The study provides practical implications for educators, including strategies for
integrating XR simulations into curricula and addressing the technological
challenges of evolving platforms. This research contributes to the ongoing
discussion about effective and ethical ways to use experiential learning in social
studies education.
Published June 29, 2025
Corresponding Author
David Hicks
hicks@vt.edu
DOI
https://doi.org/10.29173/assert
86
Pages: 29-53
Distributed under Creative
Commons
Attribution-Non-Commercial 4.0
International (CC BY-NC 4.0).
Copyright: Ownership of this
article’s copyright remains with the
author(s), subject to the Creative
Commons license.
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INTRODUCTION
The call for this issue on simulations acknowledges that simulations offer significant educational
benefits, but also pose risks when poorly designed, especially when teaching difficult histories (see
Elam 2022; Helmore 2024). Many educators, despite good intentions, have failed to heed Bell’s
(2019) warning that "simulating traumatic experiences is ineffective." Effective simulation design
requires attention to learning objectives, student engagement, historical accuracy, ethics, and
technology's unique affordances (Ogle & Hicks, 2024). Our research explores experiential learning in
social studies, ranging from traditional classroom simulations to extended reality (XR). XR
encompasses a range of immersive tools, including augmented reality (AR), which overlays digital
content onto the real world, virtual reality (VR), which creates fully immersive digital environments,
and 360-degree video, which allows users to explore a location from all angles (see Figure 1). Our
work examines how these tools can serve as windows into the past, making historically-invisible
spaces and locations visible in the present.
Figure 1
Extended Reality Technologies
Note. Extended Reality spans augmented reality, virtual reality, and 360-degree video.
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THE RESEARCH
Our research journey began with a study of how social studies teachers implemented experiential
learning techniques in their classrooms. In Dack et al. (2015), we analyzed 438 videotaped social
studies lessons across grades 3-12 to understand the extent of experiential learning and to identify
both effective strategies and pedagogical pitfalls. This study employed qualitative analysis methods,
including detailed coding of lesson content and implementation strategies. Subsequently, our
research expanded to investigate the affordances of using XR to create immersive experiential place-
based historical representations designed to make the past visible to users. This work involved the
design, implementation, and evaluation of three XR simulation projects—CI Spy, The Solitude
Experience, and The Vauquois Experience—each chosen for their potential to illuminate hidden, or
difficult, histories (See Table 1).
Table 1
XR Historical Simulations
Project
Name
Target
Audience
Locations
CI Spy
5th grade
social
studies
class. Local
history
curriculum
Field trip to
the derelict
campus as
part of 5th
grade local
history
curriculum
Solitude
Experience
General
public
Field trip to
explore the
History of
the Oldest
Building on
Campus-
Solitude
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The Vauquois
Experience
General
public, but
specifically
used with 7th
grade and
11th grade
social
studies
classes
Middle
School VR
lab, online
virtual
environment,
University
Libraries,
Local History
Museum,
Smithsonian
Museum of
American
History
Each place-based simulation was guided by the overarching question: "If this place could talk, what
would it tell us about the lives, communities, and experiences of the people here at the time?" Our
research systematically evaluated the role of place illusion (feeling present in a historical setting) and
plausibility illusion (perceiving the experience as realistic) as a critical element to sustain participants’
engagement within an inquiry. Across projects, we stressed an engagement-first approach designed
to have participants work with historical content in real-time. We also employed epistemic frames that
encouraged learners to take on roles such as junior detectives, time travelers, or
archeologists/historians.
Across our projects, we iteratively designed and refined XR experiences based on user feedback to
better align with educational goals. Our data collection methods included observations, interviews,
and a user think-aloud protocol during testing sessions. In Fitzpatrick et al. (2021), we shifted our
focus to evaluating how XR simulations could be integrated with traditional historical sources,
developing and testing instructional scaffolds for inquiries on the Holocaust and the Civil Rights
Movement.
FINDINGS
Our research has yielded several key findings with significant implications for instructional design in
social studies education.
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Challenges with Classroom Simulations
Dack et al. (2015) revealed that only 14 out of 438 lessons used experiential simulation. Many lacked
clear instructional purposes, asked students to imagine they were a person from the past, were
derailed by unexpected student responses, or inadvertently reinforced misconceptions. Teachers
often struggled to balance engagement with content, resulting in simulations that were more
entertaining than educational. Even successful activities emphasized factual recall over disciplinary
thinking.
Potential of XR Simulations
Our XR simulations demonstrated the technology's potential to address challenges identified in
traditional simulations, particularly in terms of feeling "present" and connected to places and people
in the past (Ogle & Hicks, 2024). The CI Spy project (Johnson et al., 2017) used AR to enable
students, as junior detectives, to explore a former 13-building African American school—now reduced
to one derelict structure—revealing hidden narratives of segregation-era education. The sense of
being "present" proved crucial for fostering an inquiry-based approach to learning.
Creating Authentic Historical Environmental Representations
The Vauquois Experience (Duer et al., 2020; Ogle et al., 2020) demonstrated the power of recreating
authentic historical environments in VR to reveal otherwise inaccessible aspects of the past. By
recreating WWI tunnels based on laser-scanned data, the experience provided a sense of "being
there" that traditional methods couldn't match (see Figure 2 below).
Balancing Engagement and Learning
In working with teachers and students, we recognize the “novelty effect” that often accompanies new
classroom technologies. However, in our designs, simulations serve as components of disciplined
inquiry, where students pose compelling questions, analyze sources, make evidence-based claims,
and present findings orally or in writing. The simulations themselves function as sources to be
critically examined within the inquiry process. To support both cognitive and affective learning, we
incorporate explicit scaffolds, including challenge cards, structured source analysis, and an epistemic
stance. These strategies effectively balance student engagement with the persistence needed to
navigate historical inquiry—from questioning to forming evidence-based conclusions as part of their
final assessment.
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Figure 2
The Vauquois VR Experience
XR as a Historical Source
Our work on integrating XR into C3 inquiries (Fitzpatrick et al., 2021) revealed the potential for
treating XR experiences as sources to be analyzed. This approach requires careful instructional
design to help students critically examine these experiences, considering aspects such as
authorship, purpose, and historical accuracy.
Ethical Considerations
Our research highlighted the need for careful ethical consideration when using XR to reveal difficult
or sensitive histories. There's a need to balance immersive engagement with respectful treatment of
sensitive topics, avoiding trivialization or oversimplification of complex historical narratives.
Iterative Design Process
All XR projects benefited from iterative design with rounds of testing and refinement highlighting the
need for flexibility in instructional design to align learning goals with immersive experiences (see
Gutkowski et al., 2021). These findings point to the potential of XR to create powerful learning
opportunities in social studies by making the past visible to students. Effective design must consider
learning objectives, student engagement, historical accuracy, ethical implications, and the unique
affordances of the technology to reveal hidden and hard histories.
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PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS FOR TEACHERS
Based on our research, several practical implications have emerged for incorporating simulations into
social studies classrooms:
Purposeful, Iterative, and Aligned Instructional Design
Whether designing traditional classroom simulations or XR simulations, careful instructional design
that aligns experiential activities with specific learning objectives is necessary. Key initiating design
questions include:
What do I want my students to learn through this experience in a safe and appropriate
manner?
How will they perceive and make sense of these experiences?
How will their experiences align with my learning objectives?
Structured Inquiry through Scaffolding and Explicit Strategy Instruction
Developing accessible guiding questions shapes the entire instructional experience and fosters
historical inquiry. Strong questions encourage students to critically engage with historical content
rather than passively consume it. To prevent students from feeling overwhelmed, scaffolding is
essential. Embedding historical thinking supports within the simulation helps students analyze and
synthesize historical sources as they work to answer the guiding questions. For example, in CI Spy,
we used the SCIM-C protocol to help students analyze embedded historical sources. Virtual sources
were placed in the only remaining real building and in several reconstructed virtual buildings. These
housed oral histories, text excerpts, and photographs, which students examined as historical
detectives. Using SCIM-C, they crafted evidence-based claims for their final report answering the
guiding question: If this place could talk, what would it tell us? Explicit prompts tied to “information
points” guided students to analyze key design features and content, such as assessing the
significance of an artifact or understanding the lived experiences represented in the simulation. Post-
simulation reflections then helped students connect their experiences to broader historical narratives
and learning objectives.
Purposeful Integration of XR Simulation
Well-designed XR simulations can reveal hidden histories and give students active roles in exploring
otherwise inaccessible historical places. Before implementation, teachers should first experience the
immersive environment to determine when and how it best fits their curriculum. XR simulations can
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be integrated into inquiry-based units, serving as sources alongside traditional materials for student
analysis. For example, middle school teachers incorporated Virtual Vauquois into their World War I
unit as one of several learning centers. Guided by the question, If this place could talk, what would it
tell us about the nature and impact of World War I on people, places, and the environment on the
Western Front between 1914 and 1918?, students explored topics such as medical advancements,
military strategy, environmental effects, and technological innovations. Virtual Vauquois combined
360-degree video of the present-day landscape with a simulation that allowed students to navigate
the extensive tunnel system. This experience illustrated key concepts such as war of attrition,
stalemate, and the transition from street fighting to trench and tunnel warfare, as well as the differing
conditions for French and German soldiers. Challenge cards helped students focus their analysis,
share findings, and ultimately develop individual reports answering the guiding question.
Practical Concern with the Longevity of XR Experiences
A key challenge is the ever-changing nature of XR platforms. Even established companies have a
habit of discontinuing or changing platforms with minimal notice, posing a challenge for teachers
trying to integrate these tools sustainably. For example, Google Expeditions, once a great resource
for easy-to-use VR experiences, was discontinued. However, there are still valuable XR experiential
simulations available online (see Table 2).
Table 2
Example Historical XR Simulations available to the public
Title
Description
Availability
1943 Berlin Blitz
Created by the BBC,
this simulation combines
historical audio
recordings with first-
person XR simulation
for a ride on an RAF
night raid over Berlin.
Available on the Steam
Store and the Meta
Store
The Anne Frank House
A first person XR
simulation of the secret
living space they
occupied in Amsterdam
prior to their discovery
by the Nazis.
Available on the Meta
Store
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Cyark Tapestry
The non-profit
organization, Cyark,
presents virtual exhibits
of ancient cultural
heritage sites around
the world that they have
preserved digitally, via
their Tapestry website.
Available on the Cyark
Tapestry Website
Provide Opportunities for Student Creation
The technological barriers to building XR immersive experiences are falling. Opportunities now exist
for students to create their own immersive experiences as part of their learning. This can involve
using simple, readily available AR creation tools to annotate physical space with historical information
or create 360° virtual tours of local historical sites (see Table 3).
Table 3
Example platforms for creating XR (free and paid)
Title
Description
Cost
PlayCanvas
Open-source game
engine for creating Web-
based games
Free
GDevelop
No-code required game
engine for creating
multi-platfrom games
Free
Adobe Aero
Software for easy
creation of augmented
reality experiences
Subscription
Consistent Focus on Ethical Considerations
When designing and selecting XR experiences, especially for difficult histories, carefully consider
how the experience will be received. Attend to ethical implications by avoiding experiences that
trivialize events, reinforce stereotypes, or present simplistic, singular perspectives. Debriefing is an
essential component of effective simulation use and should be done in a timely manner. It isn't
enough for students to simply experience the simulation; they need time to reflect and unpack the
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“burden of representation” to critically analyze how the past was depicted, whose perspectives were
highlighted or omitted, and what messages were conveyed. Such reflections help students develop a
more nuanced understanding of history and the complexities involved in representing historical
events.
CONCLUSION
Historical simulations using XR technologies can enhance student engagement and historical
understanding in social studies when used thoughtfully. Effective implementation requires careful
design, scaffolding, and ethical considerations. XR can make the past visible, allowing students to
actively engage in place-based historical inquiries. Whether in a “traditional” simulation or XR
simulation, the crucial takeaway is to avoid having students role-play specific individuals and groups
from the past, especially in traumatic contexts. This approach is pedagogically unsound, but great
fodder for media headlines.
Q & A with David Hicks, J. Todd Ogle, and Stephanie van Hover
Question #1
Teacher’s Question:
How/when should teachers use simulations versus authentic primary documents like
narratives/diaries, etc., to prohibit the reinforcement of trauma?
David, Todd, and Stephanie’s Response:
The XR simulations highlighted in our research are place-based, designed to immerse students in
authentic historical sites while engaging in rigorous analysis of primary sources. These simulations
are not about stepping into the role of historical figures or attempting to "feel" the past, but rather
about providing a spatial understanding of history. By allowing students to see what was—and was
not—left behind, XR can make the invisible past visible and serve as a portal into historical inquiry.
A key distinction is that these immersive experiences do not ask students to assume identities or
emotionally empathize with individuals from the past. Research consistently shows that it is
impossible for adolescents to fully grasp what it was like to live in a different time and place (Barton &
Levstik, 2004; Davis et al., 2001; Yeager & Foster, 2001). Historical empathy is not about "walking in
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someone else's shoes," but about critically examining evidence and perspectives. XR simulations,
therefore, function as sources themselves—historical artifacts to be analyzed alongside primary
documents, rather than as emotional or theatrical exercises. Many of these immersive experiences
also integrate primary sources directly, enabling students to explore them in context and through
structured inquiry. This demonstrates that it is not a question of simulations versus historical sources,
but rather how these tools work together to support historical thinking.
As for when and how to use simulations, we believe that teachers must be intentional, knowing both
their students and their content. In general, simulations should avoid role-play, dramatization, or any
form of "make believe" activity. Classroom observations in our research revealed that students were
sometimes asked to "understand" what it was like to be an immigrant or an Indigenous child forcibly
sent to a boarding school. Such activities not only oversimplify complex historical experiences, but
can also reinforce trauma rather than facilitate meaningful learning. Instead, XR simulations should
focus on connecting students to a place—not a person—and guiding them through an inquiry-driven
process that interrogates historical sources to understand past perspectives. LaCapra (1999), in his
work on the Holocaust and trauma, argues that ethical historical engagement requires "empathetic
unsettlement"—a stance that acknowledges difference rather than appropriating another’s
experience. This distinction is crucial. When designed thoughtfully, XR simulations provide students
with a deeper understanding of historical spaces, events, and structures without collapsing into
problematic reenactment.
Ultimately, our research underscores that simulations should function as tools for inquiry, not as
reenactments. By centering historical investigation on primary sources and using simulations to
enhance—not replace—contextual analysis, educators can foster rigorous historical thinking while
ensuring responsible and ethical engagement with the past.
Question #2
Teacher’s Question:
When engaging in a simulation such as the CI Spy Project, how can teachers provide student
language to help discuss their findings regarding segregation and racist approaches while still
honoring the work of African American teachers/students in the school?
David, Todd, and Stephanie’s Response:
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This is a great question, and brings back vivid memories of working with 5th graders as they engaged
in on-site historical inquiry through the CI Spy immersive experience. As part of this experience,
students analyzed historical sources such as newspaper articles from the period, encountering
language such as colored and Negro. Their reactions varied—some hesitated to read these terms
aloud, while others seemed drawn to the unfamiliarity of the language. This underscored the
importance of preparing students to critically engage with historical sources while maintaining respect
for those who lived through these experiences.
To support students in this process, we took direction from previous structured inquiries around
topics such as the Civil Rights Movement, Japanese internment, and child labor. In CI Spy, students
were given the epistemic stance of junior history detectives, responsible for investigating historical
sources as evidence of past events and perspectives (Hicks et al., 2016). This framing helped them
understand that they would encounter language reflective of the time periods they were studying—
language that might be outdated or offensive today. A key part of their role was recognizing the
historical context in which these sources were produced (e.g., Jim Crow, World War II) and reflecting
on how beliefs, attitudes, and language have changed over time.
We also emphasized that historical sources are records and relics of the past, shaped by the
perspectives of those who produced them. By positioning students as responsible investigators, we
provided a framework that enabled them to thoughtfully analyze primary sources while honoring the
resilience and achievements of African American students and teachers.
CI Spy: A Forward-Thinking Approach to Segregation and Resilience
From the project’s inception, CI Spy was designed to be more than just an examination of
segregation—it was developed to highlight the resilience and agency of the African American
community in Southwest Virginia. Working with alumni of the school and public historians, we sought
to make visible a hidden history. Our guiding question—If this place could talk, what would it tell us
about the people who were once here?—invited students to engage deeply with the lived
experiences of those who attended and taught at the school.
Most students had some familiarity with Jim Crow and the Civil Rights Movement from previous
learning, but they knew little about the existence of a segregated school in their own community. In
fact, their lack of prior knowledge was an asset, as it allowed them to approach the inquiry with
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curiosity and a sense of discovery. The current site is easy to overlook—only the Edgar A. Long
Building remains, deteriorating on a three-acre lot surrounded by industrial buildings, a daycare
center, and a high school. However, between 1866 and 1966, Christiansburg Institute (CI) was a
cornerstone of the African American community in Southwest Virginia. The 185-acre campus once
housed thirteen buildings, and Booker T. Washington served on its board of supervisors. CI Spy was
designed to engage students with primary sources in a way that acknowledged segregation while
highlighting the rigor and richness of education at CI. Through the CI Spy app, students explored
historical sources—including class schedules, yearbooks, oral histories, and artifacts showcasing
academic preparation, vocational training, and extracurriculars like the CI band and basketball team
that were digitally housed in the real and virtual buildings (see Figure 3) (Ogle & Hicks, 2024).
Figure 3
Real and Virtual Locations and sources at Christiansburg Institute
This inquiry revealed a history of quality education, resilience, and agency, countering narratives of
victimization and emphasizing the strength and determination of those who built and sustained this
institution. As part of the inquiry, students compiled a final detective report based on their source
analysis to answer the guiding question. Structured prompts helped them focus on key themes:
overcoming challenges, the role of teachers in shaping education, opportunities created for students,
and the significance of CI—why it should be remembered today. Two unexpected outcomes of this
work was a presentation created and delivered to the School Board by the 5th graders, urging the
county to take action to preserve the former school as a historical site, and the creation of a museum
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exhibit at the local high school, highlighting CI’s impact on the community for over a century. By
positioning students as investigators and equipping them with the tools to analyze language and
historical context, CI Spy allowed them to examine segregation in a way that did not diminish or
erase the contributions of African American educators and students. The inquiry was never about
passive reflection on injustice; rather, it was an active, forward-thinking process of recognizing
history’s complexities.
Question #3
Teacher’s Question:
“Historical simulations using XR technologies can enhance student engagement and historical
understanding in social studies when used thoughtfully. Effective implementation requires careful
design, scaffolding, and ethical considerations.” These statements are crucial for teachers to
consider before engaging in simulations. Is there a set of criteria (checklist) you could suggest for
teachers who may not be from the underrepresented community that is part of the historical context
to prepare for the experience?
David, Todd, and Stephanie’s Response:
As educators, we recognize the importance of structured decision-making—and one of us, in
particular, is a fan of Atul Gawande’s (2010) The Checklist Manifesto. Gawande (2010) illustrates
how checklists help professionals navigate complexity, prevent critical oversights, and make more
defensible, ethical decisions—principles that apply directly to the design and implementation of
historical simulations and XR technologies in social studies.
While simulations can enhance engagement and deepen historical understanding, their effectiveness
depends on careful design, scaffolding, and ethical considerations. This is particularly crucial when
teachers engage with histories of underrepresented communities to which they do not belong.
Without intentional planning, simulations risk reinforcing stereotypes, oversimplifying complex
histories, or causing unintended harm rather than fostering critical inquiry.
To help teachers navigate these complexities, we propose a checklist as a structured decision-
making tool—similar to Gawande’s approach—to evaluate when, how, and why to use simulations.
Inspired by Rodríguez & Swalwell’s (2023) decision-making tree for dramatization and gamification,
the checklist provides a clear scaffold for teachers. If you find yourself answering “no” to any of these
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questions, it may be worth pausing to ensure your approach is historically responsible, pedagogically
sound, and ethically defensible before moving forward.
Checklist for Using Simulations & XR in Social Studies
Before the Experience: Preparation & Ethical Considerations
Ensure Historical Accuracy & Representation
Have I included primary sources and narratives from the underrepresented community?
Does the XR experience highlight agency, resilience, and historical complexity rather than
reducing history to trauma narratives?
Have I evaluated who created the XR experience and what perspectives it presents?
Have I walked through the simulation myself and consulted colleagues?
Prepare Students for Thoughtful Engagement
Have I established a safe and respectful classroom environment for discussing complex
histories?
Have I provided necessary background knowledge and guidance on historical language to
prevent misconceptions?
Is this framed as a historical inquiry rather than an immersive role-playing exercise?
Assess Ethical & Emotional Risks
Does this activity avoid stereotypes, trivialization, or emotional reenactments?
Have I considered potential harm (reinforcing bias, trauma, or oversimplification)?
During the Experience: Scaffolding & Student Inquiry
Guide Ethical Historical Inquiry
Are students positioned as historians, not actors, using source-based inquiry rather than
reenacting oppression?
Have I provided structured analytical tools (e.g., SCIM-C, RICH, corroboration strategies)
to guide source evaluation?
Do discussion prompts encourage critical thinking and questioning of historical narratives?
Are assessments aligned with disciplinary inquiry rather than simplistic empathy
exercises?
Monitor Emotional & Ethical Impact
Are students critiquing not just sources, but also who produced the XR representation and
why?
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Have I established clear ethical boundaries (e.g., no trauma reenactments, no forced role-
playing)?
Am I checking in on students’ emotional responses to ensure psychological safety?
Have I framed this as a disciplinary act of historical inquiry, rather than the passive
consumption of digital history?
After the Experience: Reflection & Analysis
Critically Evaluate XR as a Historical Source
Have students compared and corroborated the XR experience with primary and secondary
sources to evaluate evidence, reliability, and perspective?
Are students identifying biases, omissions, and interpretations in the XR representation?
Have I facilitated discussions on how history is constructed and represented?
Connect to Contemporary Issues & Action
Am I prepared to guide students in drawing connections between this history and
contemporary systemic issues?
Have I encouraged students to explore modern parallels and take informed action?
Have I equipped students to critically analyze how digital history and immersive
environments are created, and whose stories it amplifies or excludes?
Question #4
Teacher’s Question:
What are the benefits of students taking on the roles of “junior detectives, time travelers, or
archeologists/historians” in extended reality simulations (as opposed to historical actors)? How does
the choice of simulated roles impact a simulation lesson's learning goals/activities?
David, Todd, and Stephanie’s Response:
This is an excellent question, as it speaks directly to the core of how we want students to engage
with historical inquiry in XR environments. Much of the negative media attention surrounding
educational simulations has focused on cases where students have been asked to role-play as
historical actors in problematic ways—situations that often lead to ethical concerns, emotional harm,
or historical oversimplification. Our work builds on the design based curricular and pedagogical
research of Parker et al. (2011; 2013) and Stoddard et al. (2018; 2022) by focusing instead on
disciplinary ways of thinking that position students as investigators of history, rather than reenactors
of it.
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We deliberately assign students to roles such as junior detectives, time travelers, archaeologists, or
historians because these positions encourage students to engage in historical inquiry, analysis, and
argumentation within lessons, rather than passively experience a historical setting (Hicks et al., 2016;
Ogle & Hicks, 2024). These roles are epistemic frames (Shaffer, 2006) that help students think like
professionals in the field—gathering and analyzing evidence, making claims, and constructing
arguments—rather than simply adopting a character in a historical narrative. This is important within
our instructional design as students’ final assessments, aligned with learning goals, are to develop
and communicate evidence-based claims in reports and presentations, revealing their findings in
relation to the guiding question: “If this place could talk, what would it tell us about …?”
A central challenge in using XR simulations is that there is often limited time for students to engage
with the content. Unlike classroom projects that unfold over several lessons, immersive experiences
need to be short and need to be meaningfully integrated into a larger instructional arc. Following
Parker et al. (2011; 2013) and Stoddard et al. (2018; 2022), we take an “engagement-first” approach
(Ogle & Hicks, 2024), which means that students are not required to learn everything before entering
the experience; instead, they gain knowledge through the act of inquiry itself.
This stands in contrast to simulations where students take on the roles of historical figures, which
often require extensive pre-loading of content knowledge and can lead to problematic weak empathy
exercises (Rodríguez & Swalwell, 2023). Research has shown that students cannot truly “be”
historical actors—they lack the lived experience, contextual knowledge, and worldview of people from
the past. (see Barton & Levstik, 2004; Davis et al., 2001; Yeager & Foster, 2001). Instead, we focus
on helping them think like historians, where their job is to examine sources, contextualize information,
and make evidence-based claims.
Additionally, Rodríguez and Swalwell (2023) raise concerns about the harmful racial and ethical
implications of role-based simulations. They argue that many classroom simulations are designed
through and for a white gaze, intended to cultivate empathy in white students while disregarding the
impact on students from historically-marginalized communities. They warn that these types of
activities often retraumatize BIPOC students (p. 122) by forcing them into historically oppressive
roles, such as enslaved people or victims of colonization, in ways that reduce complex histories to
simplistic and harmful reenactments.
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Given these concerns, we are intentional about ensuring that XR simulations do not become sites of
performative history. Instead of asking students to “step into the shoes” of historical actors, we
provide them with disciplinary roles that allow them to analyze, interpret, and critique history—
ensuring that their engagement is intellectual rather than an exploitation of emotion. We see XR as
one part of a broader inquiry arc, rather than a standalone activity. In our work, immersive
experiences are deliberately designed to drop in at any point in a unit, serving as an opportunity for
students to apply knowledge, generate questions, and construct interpretations that can be further
corroborated with classroom learning. Our stance mirrors the design of the Purple States political
simulation (Stoddard et al., 2018; 2022), where students take on the role of political campaign
interns, using polling data to craft strategic messaging. Similarly, in Parker et al.’s (2011; 2013)
design-based research on AP U.S. Government, students took the epistemic stance of legislators
setting up their offices, managing competing interests, and building legislative agendas. In both
cases, students were not passively playing historical characters; they were acting to learn, engaging
in problem-based learning as part of a structured inquiry. For our purposes, we emphasize that
students must enter an immersive environment with a clear, investigative purpose based around our
guiding place-based question designed to make the invisible past visible: whether it is to analyze
artifacts as rescue archaeologists on a World War I site (Virtual Vauquois), track historical patterns
as time travelers, or build interpretations as historians (Hicks et al., 2016; Ogle & Hicks, 2024). They
do not simply absorb information; they must use it, question it, and construct knowledge from it. A
critical benefit of designing XR simulations in this way, we believe, is that it helps students develop
the knowledge, dispositions, and skills that can be used, and transferred, beyond the simulation itself.
Taking on an investigative role within an inquiry arc means that students are learning how to:
Analyze sources
Evaluate different forms of evidence
Construct well-reasoned arguments
Understand history as an inferential inquiry-based discipline
We see these as the foundational knowledge, skills and dispositions that are essential in historical
thinking, disciplinary literacy, and civic reasoning. By embedding them in a XR experience, we are
reinforcing learning by doing, in alignment with cognitive apprenticeship models that emphasize the
progression from novice to expert thinking. By placing students in investigative rather than
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performative roles, we ensure that XR simulations serve as powerful learning tools, supporting deep
historical inquiry rather than reinforcing weak empathy exercises or simplistic historical narratives.
Our work stresses the connection between the most meaningful learning that happens when students
are engaged in the act of investigation, interpretation, and argumentation, not when they are asked to
“perform” history.
Question #5
Teacher’s Question:
Why is engaging with extended reality simulations as historical sources important? How does the
analysis of simulations compare to the analysis of other primary and secondary sources like
photographs, documents, or films?
David, Todd, and Stephanie’s Response:
Through our research and practice, we have developed frameworks for engaging with XR simulations
as historical sources. We know that all sources—whether documents, photographs, films, or
immersive digital experiences—are representations of the past shaped by the perspectives of their
creators. Sources do not speak for themselves; they must be questioned, contextualized, and
interpreted within an inquiry to be used as evidence (van Hover et al., 2021), and XR simulations are
no exception. Our design-based work underscores the importance of treating XR simulations as
historical sources, just as we do with photographs, documents, films, and oral histories. We know
that sources do not speak for themselves; they must be questioned, contextualized, and interpreted
within an inquiry to be used as evidence. In our work, we emphasize that XR experiences, like
traditional sources, serve as records, relics, and representations of the past. They provide unique
opportunities for historical inquiry but also require scrutiny. They do not offer a direct window into
history, but rather an interpretation that carries the burden of representation and the constraints of
design choices. Historical sources, whether digital visual, textual or oral, all come with strengths and
limitations (van Hover et al., 2021). In light of the question, we briefly outline some of basic
understandings that ground our work with sources (see Table 4).
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Table 4
Comparing Source Types
Source Type
Strengths
Limitations
Records, Relics, and
Representational Considerations
XR immersive
environments
Immersive,
spatial
learning;
Allows users to
interact with
reconstructed
historical
spaces; Makes
lost or
inaccessible
locations
visible.
Subject to design
bias; Digital
reconstructions
may contain
inaccuracies; Risk
of oversimplification
or omission of
perspectives.
XR serves as representation—a
constructed version of history
that reflects contemporary
choices about what is included
or excluded. The simulated
environment is not a direct
record of the past but an
interpretation that must be
examined critically. As a relic, it
is a product of its time, revealing
how history is understood and
recreated today.
Photographs
Provide direct
visual evidence
of a moment in
time; Can
capture
historical detail
not present in
written sources
Can be staged,
manipulated, or
selectively framed;
Lack broader
context; May not
convey the full
story.
A photograph is a record of a
specific moment but does not
provide full context. It is a relic of
the time in which it was taken,
shaped by the photographer’s
choices, perspective, and intent.
As a representation, it can be
used to support different
narratives
depending on interpretation.
Documents (writ
large)
Offer firsthand
accounts,
official records,
and
contemporane
ous
perspectives;
Provide textual
evidence that
can be closely
analyzed.
Require
interpretation and
corroboration;
Often reflect the
perspectives of the
author or institution
that produced
them; may reflect
the perspective of
those in power
rather than diverse
voices
Documents serve as records of
specific events, laws, and
perspectives, but they are also
representations of power,
authority, and intention. They
may function as relics when
analyzed for their materiality,
language, and historical usage.
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Films
Engaging and
narrative-
driven; Can
provide
powerful visual
and emotional
connections to
historical
topics.
Often dramatized
or fictionalized;
Subject to
directorial
interpretation and
political/cultural
influences.
Films are representations of
history, often shaped by
storytelling techniques that
prioritize narrative over accuracy.
As records, they may capture
cultural attitudes, political
propaganda, or social concerns
at the time of production. They
can also be relics when studied
as historical artifacts of media
and memory.
Oral Histories
Provide
personal
perspectives
and lived
experiences;
Can reveal
voices and
narratives
often missing
from official
records.
Subject to the
fragility of memory;
Require
corroboration with
other sources;
Limited by
individual
perspective.
Oral histories are records of
personal experiences, but they
are shaped by the act of
remembering and retelling. As
relics, they offer insight into
memory, identity, and cultural
transmission. As
representations, they reflect both
the individual’s perspective and
the historian’s framing of the
story.
As researchers, educators, and instructional designers, we assert that the classification of historical
sources is not fixed, but shaped by the questions we ask—an essential distinction that must be
explicitly taught to students as they engage in historical inquiry. Without this understanding, historical
inquiry too often devolves into mere comprehension exercises, where students passively read texts
and search for answers to teacher-given questions rather than engaging in the disciplined ways of
thinking that define historical literacy as a way of knowing and making sense of the past. Too often,
teachers rely on rigid definitions of “primary” and “secondary” sources provided in standards
documents and frameworks, overlooking the crucial role of inquiry in making this determination. It is
the nature of our questions—not an inherent characteristic of the source itself—that dictates
classification.
Take, for example, a Virginia high school history textbook from the 1950s. If we ask, “What historical
narrative were Virginia students taught about the Civil War and Reconstruction in the 1950s?”, the
textbook is a primary source, offering direct evidence of how history was framed at the time.
However, if we ask, “What actually happened during the Civil War and Reconstruction?”, the textbook
functions as a secondary source, synthesizing and interpreting past events. And as a secondary
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source, it would not be the most reliable or preferred source for answering that question—historians
would instead turn to firsthand accounts, official documents, and contemporary records from the 19th
century.
This same principle applies to XR experiences. If a simulation is used to understand a historical
event, it may function as a secondary source, providing an interpretation of the past. However, if
students analyze how an XR experience constructs historical meaning—what is included, what is
omitted, and whose perspectives are represented—it becomes a primary source for studying
historical memory and digital storytelling. To support this critical engagement, we have developed a
framework for treating XR as a historical source within an inquiry. This includes examining:
Production and Purpose—Who created the XR experience? What were their goals? What
historical sources did they use?
Plausibility and Place Illusion—To what extent does the experience create a sense of historical
authenticity? What feels real, and why? What historical choices are being made to construct
that realism?
Reflections and Reactions—How does the experience shape historical understanding? What
perspectives are missing? How does it compare to other sources? (Fitzpatrick et al. 2021).
Through structured inquiry, students can learn to analyze XR in the same way they examine
documents, photographs, and films, recognizing that all sources carry perspectives, omissions, and
interpretive choices. Our work underscores that XR, like all historical sources, requires critical
analysis. While it provides new opportunities for spatial and immersive learning, it is not a neutral or
transparent view of the past. It must be examined in terms of who created it, how it constructs
historical meaning, and what questions it helps answer, or leaves unanswered. By integrating XR into
historical inquiry, we help students move beyond passive consumption of digital experiences and
engage in active interrogation of historical narratives. This approach ensures that XR, like other
sources, is used not as a substitute for evidence, but as part of a broader, corroborated inquiry into
the past. However, just as we scaffold students' ability to analyze traditional sources, we must
explicitly teach them how to question XR, ensuring they develop the critical habits of mind necessary
for disciplined historical inquiry.
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ABOUT THE AUTHORS
David Hicks
I am a Professor of History and Social Science Education in the School of Education, College of Liberal Arts and
Human Sciences at Virginia Tech. My ultimate goal is to prepare teachers who are teachers of children first and
history and social science second. I am interested in way too many things but currently gravitate toward
research that is practically orientated in terms of how to scaffold inquiry-based learning using Gen AI (see
https://genaiinhistoryeducation.com/), and also extended reality technologies to help young people visualize the
past and make visible local hidden histories. My own professional development efforts have been focused on
learning how to work in transdisciplinary teams and workflow practices–typically this begins with drinking beer
(Body by Boddingtons).Outside of my professional pursuits, I enjoy swimming (I am a member of FAT–faculty
aquatic team), kayaking (floating next to the kayak), and mountain biking (laying on the ground next to my bike).,
I taught middle and high school history and social studies in England and then in upstate New York (Newfield
and Oxford). I also taught in Job Corp (Oneonta) and later worked as a museum curator and educator.
Key Works:
Whose historical thinking? Representation of women in the Digital Inquiry Group’s Reading Like a Historian
world history curriculum. (Link)
The instructional design of place and past (Link)
J. Todd Ogle
My research and publications focus on the use of virtual and augmented reality to enhance learning performance
in several contexts, but primarily to expose learners to experiences that are otherwise inaccessible due to time,
place, scale or other constraints. I am an associate professor in the University Libraries at Virginia Tech and the
Executive Director of the Applied Research in Immersive Experiences and Simulations (ARIES) Program. ARIES
supports applied research that brings together industry partners, faculty, and students interested in the cognitive
and affective aspects of learning in immersive environments, games, simulations for training and performance
support, and more. Through it, students discover, create and share their own work in the form of games,
simulations, virtual and augmented reality experiences for learning and entertainment while having the informal
interactions with interested peers, faculty, industry partners, and external researchers that are so valuable for
student development
Key Works:
The instructional design of place and past (Link)
Using Extended Reality Technology for C3 Inquiries (Link)
Stephanie van Hover
I serve as Professor of Social Studies Education at the School of Education and Human Development at the
University of Virginia in Charlottesville, VA. I am the advisor for the secondary social studies students and teach
them in five classes and two field placements. I also teach elementary social studies methods. I love learning
from and with my students. I began my career in curriculum history, specifically educational biographies. I
studied the life and contributions of an amazing African American educator and professor, Dr. Deborah Partridge
Wolfe. I then shifted to studies that fall under the broad umbrella of teaching, learning, and assessing history in
secondary schools. I enjoy collaborating with students, past and present, and my colleagues down the road in
Blacksburg, VA. When not teaching or researching, I am partner to an elementary school principal and together
we watch a lot of soccer supporting our children, a goalkeeper and a midfielder. I also teach heated vinyasa at a
local Charlottesville studio.
Key Works:
How do we know what they know? A case study of classroom-based assessment with multilingual learners Link
A DBQ in a multiple-choice world: A tale of two assessments in a unit on the Byzantine Empire. Link